CPT 307: Newbie to Newbie Week 5

Demystifying Algorithmic Design and Data Structures for Beginners

When starting your journey in programming, understanding how to effectively design an algorithm and  structure data is essential to developing efficient programs. These tools help manage data efficiently, solve problems effectively, and improve program performance. Let’s break down what you need to know.

Why Algorithm Design and Data Structures Matter

At their core, algorithms are step-by-step procedures for solving problems, while data structures are ways to organize and store data for later access and modification. Together, they form the backbone of all computer applications.

For instance, consider the task of sorting a list of numbers. Algorithms like Selection Sort and Merge Sort can both do the job but differ in terms of time and space efficiency. Selection Sort, while simple to understand, is much slower for large datasets, as its time complexity grows quadratically (O(n^2)). Merge Sort, on the other hand, employs a divide-and-conquer strategy, significantly reducing the time complexity to $O(n\log n)$, making it a far better choice for handling large datasets.

Choosing the Right Tool for the Job

Some algorithms and data structure designs are better than others depending on the specific problem you’re solving. Here are a few principles to guide your decision-making:

Time Complexity:

• Opt for algorithms that scale well with the input size.

• For example, a linear search$(O(n))$ is simpler but less efficient than a binary search $(O(\log n))$ for sorted data. 

Space Complexity:

• Consider how much extra memory an algorithm requires.

• For example, Merge Sort uses additional memory for merging subarrays, while Quick Sort performs in-place sorting, which might be preferable in memory-constrained environments. 

Data Access Patterns:

• Some data structures are better suited for specific operations.

• A stack (LIFO structure) is ideal for managing function calls or backtracking algorithms, whereas a queue (FIFO structure) is better for breadth-first search or managing tasks in order. 

Applying Algorithmic Design and Data Structures in Programs 

Understand the Problem: Break down the requirements of your problem. For instance:

• If you need to search through data quickly, consider a hash table.

• For ordered traversal, a binary search tree might be a better fit.  

Analyze Constraints: Determine the input size and memory limitations. For example:

• Sorting small datasets? Simpler algorithms like Insertion Sort might suffice.

• Handling millions of data points? Opt for algorithms like Quick Sort or Merge Sort.

Implement and Evaluate:

• Start with a basic version of your program and test it.

• Measure the performance (time and space).

• Refactor to incorporate more efficient algorithms or data structures as needed.

Practical Example: Sorting Data

Imagine you’re tasked with sorting a list of 10,000 numbers:

• Option 1: Selection Sort – Simple but performs $O(n^2)$ operations, leading to sluggish performance as the dataset grows​.

• Option 2: Merge Sort – Slightly more complex but leverages $O(n \log n)$ operations, making it significantly faster for large datasets​.

For small datasets, the overhead of Merge Sort may not be worth it, but for large datasets, the performance gains are undeniable. This is why understanding both the algorithm’s behavior and the dataset’s characteristics is critical.

Conclusion

When developing structured programs, your choice of algorithms and data structures can make or break your application’s performance. By analyzing time and space complexity, understanding problem constraints, and iteratively refining your approach, you can build efficient and maintainable programs.

So, take the time to explore, experiment, and analyze. Whether you’re sorting numbers, managing a database, or designing a game, mastering these techniques will unlock endless possibilities in your programming journey.

 

 

CPT 307: Newbie to Newbie Week 1

Object Oriented Programming (OOP) concepts: Java

    Good Day, fellow Newbies! I'm back again, this time with some helpful tips on installing and learning Java, an object-oriented programming (OOP) language. Java is a versatile language that can easily prot applications across different platforms due to its object-oriented structure, which makes it a simple matter to swap out program modules without worrying about breaking the greater program.

Installation

    The first thing we need to do to get started programming in Java is to install the latest version of the Java SE Development Kit (JDK) from here. Even if you already have Java, downloading the latest version is always considered to be a best practice in programming.

    After downloading and installing the latest version of the JDK, you'll want an Integrated Development Environment (IDE). An IDE is a program designed to facilitate the development of other programs, featuring many helpful tools such as real-time debugging, error checking, and function library for a multitude of languages. I used Apache's Netbeans IDE, which can be found here, but there are a number of options to choose from, such as Microsoft's Visual Studio, Jetbrains' IntelliJ IDEA, or Eclipse. Which one you choose is largely a matter of taste, so give them a try and see which one works for you!

 

What is an Object?

    It seems like a weird question, something so basic, but aside from just being a "thing", it's surprisingly deep. An object, both in programming and in real life, is an object that exists with both properties and behavior. In programming, these are called it's State (it's current properties) and Method (what it's doing). creating a program object allows programmers to define a function that performs a particular thing without having to copy the entire function every time it's used. Instead, the object acts as a container for the function and its associated variables. For instance,  instead of having to machine every part of a bicycle from scratch every time you needed to go to the store, You need only build it once and then you can store it in your garage and take it out again every time you need it.

How Do We Use These Objects?

    To use an object, we must first define a class. Think of a class as a blueprint for making objects, defining what it is, what it does, and what variables and states it can have. Before making our bike, we first must know what a bike is, what it does, and how it does it. Creating a class in Java is as simple as evoking the class definition followed by what you wish to name it, then defining the container by what's in the brackets. like this:

class Bicycle {

};

This stores the definition of what constitutes a bicycle in the program's memory for later use.

    Once we've stored the blueprint of what a bicycle is, we can now make one, called an instance, by evoking the class we made to create a new object like this:

Bicycle1 = new Bicycle(); 

    You can make as many instances of an object that you have defined as you want, and each can be modified and called upon as separate entities that use the same pattern and limitations.

Why Use Objects?

    Objects allow code to interact with one another, be reused, and duplicated during the code execution without needing to copy over the entirety of the function into the code itself, improving readability and compaction of the code. By allowing the program itself to create new instances of an object during execution, or call other containers in order to modify states, it makes programs more flexible and dynamic, allowing them to be scaled up and down in scope depending on your needs. For our example, using our Bicycle object, if we didn't use an object class to store the definition of a bicycle, we would be limited to only however many copies of the code are stored in the program itself. So if we only coded one bicycle, we would only have one bicycle. However, using object classes to tell the program what a bicycle is, we can define as many instances of a bicycle as we want, even creating new kinds of bicycles by having the new class inherit the properties of the Bicycle class to build off of. We could recreate the entire Tour De France without significantly bloating the program, because instead of having to tell the computer what a bicycle is every time we need one, we created a template it can call on to make as many as we want.

Conclusion

Using Object-Oriented Programming makes coding programs easier and the final result more compact and easy to use. Learning to utilize objects in programming is essential to understanding how to structure your programs and makes it possible to debug and troubleshoot only specific portions of a program without risking the integrity of the rest.

Summary Blog Post: Understanding the Fundamental Concepts of Operating Systems

    Operating systems (OS) serve as the backbone of computer functionality, managing hardware, running applications, and ensuring smooth interaction between users and system resources. Throughout my exploration of operating systems theory, I've gained a deep appreciation of the mechanisms that allow OSs to operate. In this post, I'll discuss the key concepts that form the foundation of operating systems, including their structures, process management, memory management, file handling, input/output (I/O), and security mechanisms. These concepts will offer insight into the complexity of OSs and their critical role in modern computing.

Features of Contemporary Operating Systems and Their Structures

    Contemporary operating systems are designed to facilitate multitasking, resource allocation, and efficient process management. At the core of an OS are high-level functions such as system calls that allow user applications to request services from the hardware. The OS is booted by the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), which acts as a miniature OS, coordinating hardware components and launching the main OS stored on the storage device. Once running, the OS manages critical tasks like process execution, I/O operations, file system management, and error handling.

    The OS also provides a user interface (UI), most commonly in the form of a graphical user interface (GUI), allowing users to interact with the system. This interplay between hardware, system calls, and the UI ensures that the OS not only runs efficiently but also provides a seamless experience for the user.

 

Enabling Processes to Share and Exchange Information

    Processes within an OS are coordinated through the use of process control blocks (PCBs), which track essential details like process IDs, memory usage, and CPU scheduling. These processes can either run independently or, in a multi-threaded environment, run in parallel, allowing for enhanced performance on multi-core processors. However, this creates the potential for race conditions, where multiple processes attempt to access the same resource simultaneously.

    To resolve this issue, OSs implement process synchronization techniques, such as locks, to ensure that only one process can access a resource at any given time. These mechanisms protect system stability by preventing data conflicts and maintaining orderly access to shared resources.

 

Memory Management: Main Memory and Virtual Memory

    Memory management is a critical function of the OS, ensuring that each process has the memory resources it needs to execute efficiently. The OS manages both physical memory (the actual RAM in the system) and virtual memory, which provides an abstraction layer that allows processes to use more memory than is physically available.

    Two primary memory management techniques include paging and segmentation. Paging divides memory into fixed-size blocks, allowing non-contiguous memory allocation, which reduces fragmentation. Segmentation, on the other hand, divides memory into logical segments like code, data, and stack, allowing for more structured memory allocation. Together, these techniques allow the OS to allocate, deallocate, and swap memory efficiently, preventing crashes due to memory overload.

 

Handling Files, Mass Storage, and I/O Operations

    The file system is another foundational component of the OS, responsible for organizing, storing, and retrieving data. File systems aim to optimize performance and maintain data reliability through techniques like redundancy and journaling. The OS supports a number of operations to facilitate this, including file creation, deletion, reading, writing, and permission management.

    File organization is managed through directory structures, such as single-level directories, tree-structured directories, and acyclic-graph directories. Each offers different benefits in terms of scalability and efficiency.

    The OS also manages I/O devices, facilitating communication between the hardware and user applications. I/O devices are integrated into the system through both hardware (e.g., circuitry and interfaces) and software layers (e.g., device drivers). Techniques like Direct Memory Access (DMA) allow I/O devices to transfer data directly to and from memory, improving system efficiency by reducing CPU involvement in data transfer.

 

Mechanisms for Controlling Access to Resources

    Operating systems must also provide security to protect programs, data, and system resources from unauthorized access and malicious threats. Two primary protection mechanisms are domain-based protection and language-based protection.

    In domain-based protection, each process or user operates within a designated domain, with specific access rights defined by an access matrix. This matrix ensures that resources are only accessible to authorized users or programs, maintaining control over who can read, write, or execute specific files and processes.

    Language-based protection focuses on using programming languages to enforce security, utilizing features like type checking and memory safety to prevent unauthorized access and reduce vulnerabilities at the source code level.

    Beyond access control, security mechanisms include authentication and authorization, encryption, firewalls, and intrusion detection systems (IDS). These tools work together to protect the system from threats, ensuring that only legitimate users can access sensitive resources, and that potential threats are identified and mitigated.

 

Applying Operating Systems Concepts in Future Work

    Understanding operating systems theory is essential for working in academic and professional environments. Concepts like process synchronization, memory management, and security mechanisms are foundational in many areas of computer science, from software development to cybersecurity. In future courses, I'll build upon this knowledge to further develop my understanding of these systems. In my professional career, these concepts will guide how I design applications, granting me more insight into how to better optimize for performance and security.

    By exploring these fundamental concepts, I've gained a deeper understanding of how operating systems manage resources, protect systems, and facilitate communication between processes. This knowledge will be crucial in shaping my approach to solving computing problems as I advance in my education and career.

References

Silberschatz, A., Galvin, P. B., & Gagne, G. (2014). Operating System Concepts Essentials (2nd ed.).

Week 5: Tech Topic Connection and How I Learned How it All Comes Together

 Introduction

    As we delve into the final stretch of our exploration in information technology, it's only fitting to bring our attention to the linchpin that ties together the web of tech concepts we've encountered - programming language. This blog's central goal is to document my journey to unravel the profound connections between programming languages and the fundamental principles of information technology.

    Historical Roots and Operational Mechanisms

    Programming languages are the lifeblood of computers, representing the unbroken lineage of today's advanced machines to yesterday's rudimentary calculators. From the early days of assembly languages to the high-level languages like Java, Python, and SQL, the evolution has seen computing evolve at an exponential rate. Moore's law dictates that the number of transistors in a processor doubles every two years. Originally postulated in 1965, then modified in 1975, it's generally remained true for the last 60 years (Intel, 2023). This has resulted in computers becoming roughly 5,368,709 times more complex than they were in 1965 as of 2023. 

    Understanding the history of computers helps us appreciate how programming languages have developed and function as a natural progression for teaching them from the ground-up, as the earliest forms of programming languages are without exception the simplest and most rudimentary. This allows those just learning the language to begin learning the version of the languages with the least clutter and simplest functions, from which they can simply follow the development of the language itself and learn it feature by feature and function by function.

    The means by which computers operate, including processors, memory, and storage, are the canvas on which programming languages paint their masterpieces. Exploring this relationship reveals the importance of picking both the right hardware and software for the job.

    Hardware Components and Functions

    Programming languages rely heavily on the major hardware components of a computer system. From the Central Processing Unit (CPU) executing instructions to the Random Access Memory (RAM) storing data, every component contributes to the seamless execution of programs written in these languages. The hardware is to the program as the brain is to our learned experiences. The hardware is the equipment actually performing the work, while the program is the instructions themselves. You can't teach your arm to throw a baseball, and without and arm, your brain can't throw the baseball even though it knows how. In order for a program to function, it needs hardware to execute the instructions, and in order to execute the task, the hardware needs the software to tell it what to do. Evaluating this reliance sheds light on the importance of hardware in the development of programs.

    Program Execution and Language Syntax

    How does your chosen tech topic use programming languages, and how are programs executed? These questions delve into the syntax and execution methods of programming languages. From compiled languages like C++ to interpreted languages like Python, each has its own nuances. Understanding this aspect is crucial in becoming proficient in any programming language. Language syntax helps make the functions of a program make sense to our human brains; and by using a compiler, that readable code is converted into machine code, which is the format that the computer can most easily understand. Writing code and executing code is a conversation across language barriers between developer and machine.

    Application Software's Role

    The synergy between programming languages and application software is evident. Whether it's developing software for data analysis, graphic design, or gaming, the role of programming languages in creating application software is pivotal. Each programming language has its strengths and weaknesses, and knowing how to choose the right language for the task is important. For instance, in their upgraded release of Super Mario Sunshine for the Mario 3D All Stars collection, they elected to emulate the Gamecube to run an ISO of the game, and utilized a Lisp script to swap out all of the textures in RAM with high-resolution versions rather than completely porting the game to run natively on the Switch. Another popular program, Grammarly, is written in Lisp because the language excels at running compare-replace functions (Common Lisp, n.d.). Failing to pick the right tool will not only will make the resulting program difficult to develop, but it may limit what it can be made to do or make it more difficult to port to other systems.

    Database Concepts and Management

    Database management is a cornerstone of information technology. How does your chosen tech topic interact with databases? Whether it's through SQL queries or integrating with NoSQL databases, the connection between programming languages and databases is profound. Properly structuring data within a network makes it easy to access and keep track of. With the ever-expanding sea of information in virtually every kind of program, it's incredibly important to properly catalog and store information. Imagine having to manually comb through almost 700GB of data to find a single game file to add to your map. Nothing would ever get done.

    Network Architecture, Management, and Security

    The final layer in our exploration is the intersection of programming languages with network architecture, management, and security. In an interconnected world, understanding how programming languages facilitate communication between devices and the role they play in securing data during transmission is crucial. With programs written in different languages, how do they communicate across networks? How do do we keep important data out of the wrong hands when it's being sent outside of the safeguarded environment of our own computer? It's a topic whose complexity warrants its own career niche within the field of computer science

Conclusion

    In this journey through the intricacies of information technology, I've witnessed how programming languages serve as the bridge between abstract concepts and tangible applications. Their influence extends from the roots of computer history to the forefront of cutting-edge technology, making them a cornerstone of our tech-centric world. As we bid farewell to this class, we step forward into the ocean of programming languages ahead.

References

Common Lisp. (n.d.). Common Lisp. Lisp-lang.org. https://lisp-lang.org/.

Intel. (2023, September 18). Press Kit: Moore's Law. Intel Newsroom. https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/newsroom/resources/moores-law.html#gs.2wdihz.

Week 4: Network Security and How I Learned About the Difference Between a Virus and a Worm

 Introduction

    In the digital age, information and system security play a crucial role in safeguarding individuals and organizations from various cyber threats. This paper aims to explain the significance of information and system security and delve into specific types of cyber threats, including those associated with ping commands in networking.

Ping Command Attacks

    Ping commands, commonly used for network diagnostics, can be exploited for malicious purposes. One type of attack facilitated by ping commands is the Ping of Death. This attack involves sending an oversized packet to a target system, causing it to crash or become unresponsive. Additionally, attackers may execute a Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack by flooding a target’s IP address with pings, clogging up their bandwidth and potentially causing the ISP to temporarily cut off their internet access in order to

Computer Security Incidents

Computer viruses are malicious programs used by bad actors to damage or gain illicit access to another’s computer. Computer viruses can be used to steal personal details from infected computers, propagate itself across networks, delete valuable data, or lock the owner out of their system entirely. In 2004, the Mydoom worm (a virus that can run independently of any other programs) caused an estimated $38 billion dollars of damage by infecting millions of computers. The virus spread through infected emails by scanning infected machines for email address books, then sending copies of itself to those addresses. Additionally, the virus hijacks the computer itself to work with other infected machines in what is known as a “botnet” to execute DDoS attacks against various websites and servers. Even today, Mydoom is propagating at the rate of 1.2 billion infected computers a year despite the leaps and bounds made in network security (Gerencer, 2020). To protect against viruses, it’s vitally important to install a reputable antivirus program and ensure that it’s kept up to date with the latest definitions. Keeping the Operating System (OS), as well as all drivers, programs, and apps up to date will help protect against unauthorized access.

    Another type of security incident worth mentioning is called Phishing. Phishing exploits human trust by tricking individuals into revealing sensitive information through deceptive emails or websites by impersonating trustworthy people or organizations. If you’ve ever noticed a suspicious friend request from an obviously fake profile pretending to be one of your family members, you’ve been targeted by a phishing scam. Phishing can lead to identity theft, financial loss, and unauthorized access to personal or organizational data. The best way to protect against these kinds of social engineering attacks is to learn how to recognize them, since they rely on deception to exploit their targets. Look out for claims of suspicious activity or problems with your account that requires you to follow a link (FTC, 2022). Look for generic greetings, urgent calls to action, links to external websites, or an email address that doesn’t originate from the company the sender claims to be representing; Amazon does not use Gmail to communicate with its customers. To protect against malicious links, always type the URL of the legitimate website an email attempts to link you to if you feel the need to verify your account status to avoid falling prey to malicious links. Finally, never open attachments in suspicious emails, as they may contain a virus.

Conclusion

    Understanding the vulnerabilities associated with ping commands and common computer security incidents is essential for developing robust security measures. By implementing these strategies, individuals and organizations can significantly enhance their resistance to cyber threats, thereby safeguarding their information and systems in an ever-evolving digital landscape.
 

References

Federal Trade Commission. (2022, September). How to Recognize and Avoid Phishing Scams. Federal Trade Commission Consumer Advice. https://consumer.ftc.gov/articles/how-recognize-and-avoid-phishing-scams.
Gerencer, T. (2020, November 04). The Top 10 Worst Computer Viruses in History. HP Tech Takes. https://www.hp.com/us-en/shop/tech-takes/top-ten-worst-computer-viruses-in-history.

Week 4: Computers in the Workplace and How I Learned My Job Will Be Taken by an AI

    For this week, I'll be describing computers' role in healthcare. I'm currently a Medical Laboratory Technician for the U.S. Army, and we recently transitioned to a new comprehensive medical record system across the entire Department of Defense (DoD) designed by Cerner called MHS Genesis.

    Computers in healthcare have been vital for a long time, as medical records, patient charts, laboratory results, and more are all stored and transferred digitally these days. Prior to this transition, the DoD used several different programs to conduct different aspects of patient care, which had limited or non-existent communication with each other. The records were also stored locally, so to transfer a Service Member's (SM) medical records when they left for a new duty station, the SM had to hand-carry their physical record with them and deliver it to the Medical records department at their new treatment facility.

    The transition to MHS Genesis changed all of that. It was commissioned to be a unified medical records system where a SM's medical record could be accessed from any DoD facility, regardless of service component or type of facility. It uses an app-based design, where there are still different programs for each kind of clinic, but the apps communicate with one another in a unified sandbox so that a laboratory test ordered in Powerchart (the provider's portal and charting program) can be accessed and logged in the P0630 AppBar (a suite of apps related to various aspects of laboratory services, including records management, reporting, blood banking, and sample transfer to other facilities), and the results entered from the laboratory side can readily be accessed in the patient's chart.

    A lab tech needs to be computer-literate in this day and age because all testing is ordered and resulted through computers. All sample transfers are managed through the computer system, all of the analyzers are computerized and interfaced with this system, and more and more maintenance manuals and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) are being digitized to cut down on the space needed to store paper records in the lab.

    With more and more processes being automated within the laboratory by computers, I wouldn't be surprised if the next 10 years see the adoption of AI implementation in the laboratory to perform some tests, such as manual differential review or cancer identification. As early as 2013, a program called BakeryScan was originally designed to quickly differentiate between different pastries and sandwiches sold by a Japanese bakery, and by 2017 the technology was adapted into Cyto-Aiscan to be able to tell the subtle morphological differences in cancerous cells (Somers, 2021). I predict we'll begin to see more of that kind of technology being adapted into the processes to conduct testing that used to require a human technician, and to monitor Quality Control data, completely replacing a full-time data analysis position that currently requires an experienced tech possessing a Bachelors degree.

References

Somers, J. (2021, March 18). The Pastry A.I. That learned to Fight Cancer. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/the-pastry-ai-that-learned-to-fight-cancer.

Week 3: Travelling Through a Network and My Experience Calling Home

 

For this week's exercise, I explored using the ping and traceroute commands to explore how data travels through a network. 

Ping

    Beginning the exercise with the ping command, I opened up the Command Prompt and pinged Google.com as the instructions stated. Here are my results:

    The ping attempt was successful, with no packets lost, a minimum response time of 24ms, a maximum response time of 42ms, and an average response time of 28ms. This makes sense, as Google is one of the largest websites in the world, so its bandwidth would have to be pretty huge and they have a data center conveniently located near me, in Los Angeles California.

    Next, I chose to ping Runescape.com, the website for the MMO I talked about during last week's discussion whose servers are located in the United Kingdom. Finally, I pinged Konami.com, the website of a game publisher based in Japan.

Runescape.com was a bit slower than Google since it had further to travel, but Konami was far slower than either of them, likely because the packets have to travel not only over a longer distance but through several more network nodes, as I am about to go over.

Traceroute

Next, I executed the traceroute command to gather data on the route that the data takes along the network. First with Google, then Runescape, then finally with Konami.

I noticed that in all three cases, the first attempt timed out, the second had a spotty connection, and then the third onward connected just fine. The ping of each website also seemed to correlate positively to the number of nodes the data packets had to travel between, with Google and Jagex being similar, and Konami's having to travel through three additional nodes to reach the final site. The 'lax' prefix that the server name for Google.com begins with seems to also confirm my suspicions that it connected so quickly because I'm connecting to their Los Angeles data center, which is close by.

I'm sure if anyone here is experienced with network traffic, my traceroute results look a little off. You would be right, because I use a VPN, which passes all of my data through a network client which encrypts my data and obfuscates the IP address of my ISP, home network, and computer. Knowing this, I conducted a test without the VPN on, and I obtained similar results to everyone else here. (Please don't use my post to dox or harass me).

    I noticed that I immediately connected to my router, which passes the data to my modem, which then connects to my ISP, which then routes my data to a couple more locations before connecting to the series of 5 servers that end in Konami's website, resulting in two fewer hops overall. Based on these results, it seems that my VPN actually does spoof my IP address for both incoming and outgoing network traffic and that I might want to consider looking into replacing my router, as even though I'm connected to it via Ethernet, it's still dropping the ball when it comes to transferring data to my modem, as evidenced by the fact that it's timing out and dropping packets during the first two connections.

Closing thoughts

    Using Pings and Traceroutes to diagnose internet connection issues can help you figure out exactly where in your connection the issue is occurring. Maybe your ISP is experiencing an outage, maybe you need to troubleshoot your router like me, or maybe your modem is on the fritz; where exactly in the traceroute the data fails to transmit can tell you exactly which component of the network is causing the problem. When the connection times out, it may be an issue with your hardware, and when the connection is inconsistent, it can cause packets to be dropped. Sometimes, incorrectly configured network connections can return an error message saying that the connection was refused, meaning that it's not an issue of hardware, but of configuration.